2.1 Cultural Contexts of Ancient Mediterranean Art

The ancient Mediterranean world was a melting pot of cultures, each with their own unique art styles and traditions. From the Etruscans of Italy to the Greeks and Romans, the art of the ancient Mediterranean reflects the diverse societies that produced it. In this study guide, we will explore the cultural contexts of ancient Mediterranean art, including the art of the Etruscans, Romans, Greeks, Mesopotamians and others. Through an examination of key works, we will gain a deeper understanding of the beliefs, values, and influences that shaped the art of the ancient world and how it reflects the societies that created it. We will also explore the impact of these cultures on the art of other civilizations and the lasting legacy of ancient Mediterranean art on modern art and culture.

Mesopotamian

Ancient Mesopotamia, located in the Tigris-Euphrates river valley, was home to some of the world's earliest civilizations, including the Sumerians, Akkadians, Assyrians, and Babylonians. The art of Mesopotamia reflects the cultural, religious, and political beliefs of these societies, which flourished between 4000 BCE and 539 BCE. Mesopotamian art is known for its monumental architecture, such as the ziggurat and the palace, as well as its intricate reliefs, sculptures, and artifacts made of a variety of materials, including clay, stone, and metal. The art of Mesopotamia also includes a rich tradition of cylinder seals, which were used for a variety of purposes, including administrative, religious and commercial. Mesopotamian art is significant not only for its aesthetic value but also for the insight it provides into the social, economic, and political systems of ancient Mesopotamia.

White Temple and its ziggurat:

Anu District Phase E, reconstruction: Lamassu Design (Gurdjieff, CC BY-SA 3.0)

• The White Temple and its ziggurat are located in the ancient city of Uruk in Mesopotamia (present-day Iraq).
• The White Temple was dedicated to the god Anu, and its ziggurat was used for religious rituals and ceremonies.
• The ziggurat is made of mud brick and stands at a height of over 80 feet.
• The White Temple is known for its white limestone façade, which gives it its name.

Statues of votive figures, from the Square Temple at Eshnunna:

Standing Male Worshipper (votive figure), c. 2900-2600 B.C.E., from the Square Temple at Eshnunna (modern Tell Asmar, Iraq), Sumerian, Early Dynastic I-II, gypsum alabaster, shell, black limestone, bitumen, 11 5/8 x 5 1/8 x 3 7/8 inches / 29.5 x 10 cm (The Metropolitan Museum of Art). 

• These statues were discovered at the Square Temple at Eshnunna, which is located in present-day Iraq.
• The statues are made of alabaster and are thought to have been used as votive offerings to the gods.
• They depict individuals in a variety of poses, including standing, sitting, and kneeling, and are thought to have been used in religious ceremonies.
• The statues offer insight into the religious practices and beliefs of the people of Eshnunna during the Bronze Age.

Seated scribe:

The Seated Scribe​, c. 2620-2500 B.C.E., c. 4th Dynasty, Old Kingdom, painted limestone with rock crystal, magnesite, and copper/arsenic inlay for the eyes and wood for the nipples, found in Saqqara (Musée du Louvre, Paris). 

• This statue depicts a seated scribe, and is thought to have been created during the Old Kingdom of Egypt (around 2600 BCE).
• The scribe is shown sitting cross-legged and holding a writing instrument, likely indicating his profession.
• The statue is made of limestone and is well-preserved, offering a detailed look at the clothing, jewelry, and hairstyles of the time.
• It is an important artifact for understanding the role of scribes in ancient Egyptian society.

Standard of Ur:

Peace (detail), The Standard of Ur, 2600–2400 B.C.E., shell, red limestone, lapis lazuli, and bitumen (original wood no longer exists), 21.59 x 49.53 x 12 cm (British Museum; photo: Steven Zucker, CC BY-NC-SA 2.0)

• The Standard of Ur is a Sumerian artifact dating back to around 2500 BCE.
• It is made of wood and shell and is inlaid with lapis lazuli, shell, and red limestone.
• The standard depicts scenes of war and peace, including soldiers, musicians, and animals.
• It is thought to have been used as a symbol of authority or a standard for a military unit.
• The Standard of Ur is an important artifact for understanding the art and culture of ancient Sumer.

Lamassu from the citadel of Sargon II:

Lamassu (winged human-headed bulls possibly lamassu or shedu) from the citadel of Sargon II, Dur Sharrukin (now Khorsabad, Iraq), Neo-Assyrian, c. 720-705 B.C.E., gypseous alabaster, 4.20 x 4.36 x 0.97 m, excavated by P.-E. Botta 1843-44 (Musée du Louvre) 

• Location: Dur-Sharrukin (Khorsabad), Iraq
• Date: c. 721-705 BCE
• Cultural significance: The Lamassu is a protective deity that was often depicted in ancient Mesopotamian art. This particular statue was discovered at the citadel of Sargon II, the king of Assyria. The statue is made of gypsum and alabaster, and is notable for its size (nearly 15 feet tall) and for the detailed and realistic depiction of the human-headed bull

Egyptian

Ancient Egyptian art, which dates back to around 3100 BCE, is known for its highly stylized and symbolic nature. The art of ancient Egypt was closely tied to the religious beliefs and practices of the civilization, which lasted for over 3,000 years. The art of ancient Egypt was highly religious in nature and was used to depict the gods and goddesses of the Egyptian pantheon, as well as pharaohs and other important figures. Egyptian art was also used to decorate tombs and temples, and to depict scenes from everyday life. The art of ancient Egypt was heavily influenced by the belief in the afterlife, which led to the creation of intricate tombs, sarcophagi, and other funerary objects. Additionally, the art of ancient Egypt was characterized by its use of hieroglyphs, which were a form of writing that was used to depict words and ideas. Through the study of ancient Egyptian art, we can gain a deeper understanding of the beliefs and practices of this powerful civilization and its impact on the art and culture of the ancient world.

Great Pyramids:

The Great Pyramids at Giza, Egypt (photo: KennyOMG, CC BY-SA 4.0)

• Location: Giza, Egypt
• Date: c. 2589-2566 BCE
• Cultural significance: The Great Pyramids of Giza are some of the most iconic and recognizable structures in the world. They were built as tombs for the pharaohs Khufu, Khafre, and Menkaure during the Old Kingdom period of ancient Egypt. The pyramids were constructed using limestone and granite, and were built using a combination of ramps and pulleys to move the massive stone blocks into place. They are considered one of the greatest engineering feats of the ancient world, and are a testament to the skill and ingenuity of the ancient Egyptians.

King Menkaura and Queen:

King Menkaure (Mycerinus) and queen, 2490–2472 B.C.E., greywacke, 142.2 x 57.1 x 55.2 cm (Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, photo: Steven Zucker, CC BY-NC-SA 2.0)

• Location: Giza, Egypt
• Date: c. 2532-2472 BCE
• Cultural significance: This statue depicts King Menkaura and his queen, and is believed to have been placed in the king's tomb at Giza. The statue is made of granite and stands at over 6 feet tall. The statue is notable for its detailed and realistic depiction of the king and queen, which is a reflection of the high level of skill and artistry of the ancient Egyptian sculptors.

Temple of Amun-Re and Hypostyle Hall:

View of sphinxes, the first pylon, and the central east-west aisle of Temple of Amun-Re, Karnak in Luxor, Egypt (photo: Mark Fox, CC: BY-NC 2.0)

Model of the Precinct of Amun-Re, Karnak (photo: Rémih, CC: BY-SA 3.0)

• Location: Karnak, Egypt
• Date: c. 1550-1070 BCE
• Cultural significance: The Temple of Amun-Re is one of the most important religious sites in ancient Egypt. It was dedicated to the god Amun, who was considered the king of the gods by the ancient Egyptians. The temple was built over a period of several centuries, and features a large hypostyle hall with columns that are over 30 feet tall. The temple is significant for its grand scale and the level of detail and craftsmanship that went into its construction.

Akhenaton, Nefertiti, and three daughters:

House Altar depicting Akhenaten, Nefertiti and Three of their Daughters, limestone, New Kingdom, Amarna period, 18th dynasty, c.1350 BCE (Ägyptisches Museum/Neues Museum, Staatliche Museen zu Berlin)

• Location: Amarna, Egypt
• Date: c. 1353-1336 BCE
• Cultural significance: This statue depicts the pharaoh Akhenaton, his wife Nefertiti, and their three daughters. It is believed to have been created during the reign of Akhenaton, who is known for his radical religious reforms and for promoting the worship of a single god, Aten. The statue is notable for its naturalistic and realistic style, which is a departure from the traditional stylized depictions of pharaohs and their families in ancient Egyptian art.

Last judgment of Hunefer:

Page from the Book of the Dead of Hunefer, c. 1275 B.C.E., 45.7 x 83.4 cm (frame), Thebes, Egypt © Trustees of the British Museum

• Location: Thebes, Egypt
• Date: c. 1275 BCE
• Cultural significance: This is an illustration from the Book of the Dead, an ancient Egyptian funerary text. The illustration depicts the judgment of Hunefer, who is led by the god Anubis to the god Osiris to be judged for his actions in life. The illustration is significant for its detailed and accurate depiction of the afterlife beliefs and rituals of the ancient Egyptians.

Palette of King Narmer:

Palette of King Narmer, from Hierakonpolis, Egypt, Predynastic, c. 3000–2920 B.C.E., slate, 2' 1" high (Egyptian Museum, Cairo)

• The Palette of King Narmer is an ancient Egyptian ceremonial palette that dates back to the Early Dynastic Period (around 3100 BCE).
• The palette depicts the unification of Upper and Lower Egypt by King Narmer, who is shown wearing the crowns of both regions.
• It also features other hieroglyphs and images of animals, such as the goddess Nekhbet, who was the protector of Upper Egypt.
• The palette was likely used for rituals or ceremonies, and is considered an important artifact for understanding the early history of Egypt.

Greek

Ancient Greek art encompasses the art produced in the Greek-speaking world from the ninth century BCE to the fourth century CE. This period saw the rise and fall of the powerful city-states of Athens, Sparta, and Corinth, as well as the emergence of the Hellenistic period following the conquests of Alexander the Great. The art of ancient Greece is characterized by its focus on the human form, as well as its emphasis on balance, harmony, and proportion. Greek art also reflects the society's religious beliefs and myths, as well as its political and cultural values. From the iconic marble statues of the Parthenon to the colorful frescoes of the Minoan civilization, ancient Greek art continues to fascinate and inspire audiences to this day. This study guide will explore the cultural contexts of some of the most important works of ancient Greek art, including the Athenian agora, the Peplos Kore, the Niobides Krater, and the Grave Stele of Hegeso.

Niobides Krater:

Niobid Painter, "Niobid Krater," Attic red-figure calyx-krater, c. 460-50 B.C.E., 54 x 56 cm (Musée du Louvre)

• Greek vase made of clay
• Dates back to the 5th century BCE
• Depicts the mythological story of Niobe, who boasted of her many children and was punished by the gods
• Considered an important example of the development of narrative painting on pottery

Grave stele of Hegeso:

Grave stele of Hegeso, c. 410 B.C.E., marble and paint, from the Dipylon Cemetary, Athens, 5' 2" (National Archaeological Museum, Athens)

• Greek grave marker made of marble
• Dates back to the 5th century BCE
• Depicts a woman, Hegeso, sitting in front of a jewelry box
• Provides insight into the role of women in ancient Greek society

Great Altar of Zeus and Athena at Pergamon:

The Pergamon Altar, c. 200-150 B.C.E., 35.64 x 33.4 meters, Hellenistic Period (Pergamon Museum, Berlin)

• Greek altar located in present-day Turkey
• Built in the 2nd century BCE
• Dedicated to the gods Zeus and Athena
• Considered one of the greatest surviving examples of Hellenistic sculpture

Alexander Mosaic:

The Alexander Mosaic as seen on the wall of the Museo Archeologico Nazionale di Napoli, Alexander Mosaic, created in the 2nd century B.C.E., from the House of the Faun in Pompeii

• Roman mosaic depicting the Battle of Issus
• Dates back to the 2nd century BCE
• Based on a lost painting by the Greek artist Philoxenos
• Considered one of the greatest surviving examples of Roman art

Seated Boxer:

Apollonius, Boxer at Rest, c. 100 B.C.E., bronze, Hellenistic Period (Palazzo Massimo, Museo Nazionale Romano, Rome).

• Roman sculpture made of bronze
• Dates back to the 2nd century CE
• Depicts a seated boxer, likely a gladiator or athlete
• Characterized by its realism and attention to detail

Athenian Agora:

Site plan of the Agora of Athens in the Classical period, creator: Tomisti, CC BY-SA 4.0

• Located in Athens, Greece
• Built in the 5th century BCE
• Served as the center of political, commercial, and social activity in ancient Athens
• Includes important structures such as the Stoa of Attalus and the Bouleuterion (Council House)

Peplos Kore:

Peplos Kore, c. 530 B.C.E., from the Acropolis, Athens, Greece (Acropolis Museum, Athens)

• Archaic Greek statue made of marble
• Dates back to 530 BCE
• Represents a young woman wearing a peplos, a type of ancient Greek dress
• Characterized by its stiff, formal posture and advanced realism

Etruscan

Ancient Etruscan art, the art and architecture produced by the Etruscan civilization in central Italy between the 8th and 3rd centuries BCE, is known for its distinctive style, influenced by the art of the ancient Greeks and the indigenous cultures of Italy. Etruscan art is characterized by its use of metalworking, especially in the production of elaborate sarcophagi and jewelry. The Etruscan civilization was also known for its monumental architecture, including the construction of large tombs and elaborate city walls. Etruscan art also includes a variety of sculptures, such as the bronze "Chimera of Arezzo" and the "Apulu" statue, as well as frescoes and ceramics. These works of art provide insight into the religious beliefs, social structure, and daily life of the Etruscan people. Etruscan art is also significant in the history of Western art as an important precursor of Roman art.

Sarcophagus of the Spouses:

Sarcophagus of the Spouses, c. 520 B.C.E., Etruscan, painted terracotta, 140 x 202 cm, found in the Banditaccia necropolis, Cerveteri (Museo Nazionale Etrusco di Villa Giulia, Rome; photo: Steven Zucker, CC BY-NC-SA 2.0)

• Etruscan sarcophagus made of terra cotta
• Dates back to the 3rd century BCE
• Depicts a married couple reclining on a bed
• Unique in that it provides a glimpse into Etruscan domestic life and the role of women

Tomb of the Triclinium:

Tomb of the Triclinium, c. 470 B.C.E. (Etruscan chamber tomb, Tarquinia, Italy)

• Roman tomb located in Rome, Italy
• Built in the 2nd century CE
• Named for the three banqueting couches (triclinium) found inside
• Contains frescoes and mosaics depicting scenes from Greek and Roman mythology

Roman

Ancient Roman art is a complex and diverse subject that reflects the various cultures and societies that existed within the Roman Empire. Spanning from the Republic to the Late Antiquity, Roman art encompasses a wide range of mediums and styles, from painting, sculpture, and mosaic, to architecture and decorative arts. Roman art was heavily influenced by the art of the Etruscans and the Greeks, as well as the art of the Eastern Mediterranean, Egypt, and the Near East. This art often served practical, religious, and political purposes, and was used to convey the values, beliefs, and ideals of Roman society. With its rich historical and cultural context, ancient Roman art remains a fascinating and endlessly fascinating subject for study.

Pantheon:

The Pantheon, Rome, c. 125 (photo: Steven Zucker, CC BY-NC-SA 2.0)

• Roman temple located in Rome, Italy
• Built in the 2nd century CE
• Dedicated to all the gods of ancient Rome
• Considered one of the greatest surviving examples of Roman architecture
• Inspired the Capitol Building

Ludovisi Battle Sarcophagus:

Battle of the Romans and Barbarians (Ludovisi Battle Sarcophagus), c. 250-260 C.E. (Museo Nazionale Romano-Palazzo Altemps, Rome) 

• Roman sarcophagus made of marble
• Dates back to the 3rd century CE
• Depicts a battle scene with Germanic warriors
• Considered an important example of Roman relief sculpture

In conclusion, the art and architecture of the ancient Mediterranean cultures of Etruscan, Roman, Greek, Egyptian, and Mesopotamian, were deeply interconnected and influenced one another. The Etruscans, for example, drew inspiration from the art and architecture of the Greeks, while the Romans drew heavily from the Etruscans and Greeks in their own art and architecture. The Egyptians, meanwhile, had a profound influence on the art and architecture of the ancient Mediterranean world through their use of monumental stone structures and hieroglyphs. The art and architecture of Mesopotamia also had a significant impact on the ancient Mediterranean world through the spread of their cuneiform writing system and their monumental architecture. Through the exchange of ideas and styles, the art and architecture of these cultures helped shape the ancient Mediterranean world, leaving a lasting legacy that continues to be studied and admired today.