4.3 Materials, Processes, and Techniques in Later European and American Art

Materials 

In later European and American art, a wide variety of materials were used by artists to create their works. Industrialization and advances in technology allowed artists to employ new media. Below are some of the most common mediums in this unit. 

• Oil paint are made from pigments mixed with oil. It is known for its ability to create a wide range of effects and textures.
• Canvas is type of fabric that is stretched to provide a surface on which to paint. Canvas was widely used by artists in Europe and America for oil paintings.
• Watercolor is a type of paint made from pigments mixed with water and a binder. Watercolor was used by many artists in Europe and America, particularly for landscapes and other outdoor scenes.
• Pastels  are sticks of pigment mixed with a binder that can be used to create soft and delicate effects. Pastels were popular with many artists in Europe and America, particularly during the 18th and 19th centuries.
• Charcoal was used to create quick, loose drawings. It was popular with many artists in Europe and America, particularly during the 19th century.
• Photography was a new medium (along with lithography and film) that uses light-sensitive materials to create a permanent image. Photography emerged in the 19th century.

Characteristics of Artistic Movements

Rococo (1700-1750 CE)

Techniques/Processes

• Artists used delicate, curvilinear lines rather than straight ones to add playfulness and romance to their works.
• Beauty of nature is a theme in some Rococo works like The Swing.
• Pastel colors are commonly used (the work below has soft yellows in the lace and pinks on the cheeks)
  

Self-Portrait. mage Courtesy of AP Art History.

Neoclassicism (1750-1815 CE)

Techniques/Processes

• Architecture was inspired by the principles from classical Greco-Rome (composition, symmetry, balance, etc.) 🏛️
• Paintings depicted biblical and mythological stories, especially those that were an exemplum virtutis (a heroic, virtuous scene that the viewer could be inspired by)
• Artists used linear perspective. This creates the illusion that something painted on a 2D surface is 3D through the use of lines which all meet up at a certain part of the work called the vanishing point.
• Sculpture was made from marble and was unpainted. The human figures were attire common to the time period it was created in.
  

George Washington. Image Courtesy of Wikipedia 

Romanticism (1789-1848 CE)

Techniques/Processes

• Paintings depicted the sublime (anything that makes its viewers look in awe 😱)
• Many paintings had political messages about events that were occurring at the time, like the French Revolution, Peninsular War (war fought by Spain and Portugal against France after Napoleon Bonaparte made his brother the King of Spain), and the Zong Massacre (the deliberate killing of enslaved Africans on a slave boat by drowning).
• New advancements in photography allow artists to take photograms, daguerreotypes, and calotypes.
  

Liberty leading the People Image Courtesy of Wikipedia

Realism (1848-1860s)

Techniques/Processes

• Realism rejected the glorification and idealization present in previous artistic movements and sought to depict real life situations like poverty and prostitution (as seen in the work below ). Realism paintings often feature a high degree of detail, in order to accurately depict the subject.
  

Olympia. Image Courtesy of Wikipedia. 

Impressionism (1872-1880s)

Techniques/Processes

• Artists worked in plein-air. This is the practice of painting outside, which allowed artists to work directly from nature and capture the changing effects of light.
• Impressionists use short quick brushstrokes to capture movement.
• The forced opening of Japan inspired artists to incorporate traditional Japanese forms and techniques. This created a new style called Japonisme, which infused European art with aspects from Japanese works.
  

The Saint-Lazare Station. Image Courtesy of OHS APAH.

Post-Impressionism (1880s-1890s)

Techniques/Processes

• Art from this period was a bit more abstract than the art made during the Impressionist period, but it still maintained many conventional elements.
  

Where Do We Come From? What Art We? Where Are We Going? Image Courtesy of Wikipedia. 

Symbolism (1890s)

Techniques/Processes

• Artists painted their dreams and feelings.
• Symbolist paintings also used muted colors, such as grays and earth tones, to create a sense of mystery and melancholy
  

The Scream. Image Courtesy of Wikipedia. 

Art Nouveau (1890s-1914)

Techniques/Processes

• Paintings utilized many media (materials) like oil paint and gold leaf (as seen in the work below). They also included many bold and bright colors in order to create a sense of vibrancy and energy/
• Artists prefer using curvilinear lines because they add an organic, flowing look to their works.
• Designs are complex and elaborate (combine both geometric and organic shapes, many individual decorations, etc.).
  

The Kiss. Image Courtesy of Wikipedia.

The Prairie Style (1900-1930s)

Techniques/Processes

• Architects believed that buildings should reflect the area where they are built and be in harmony with its location 🏡
• Plans (the structure of a building) are inspired by contemporary paintings and are made up mostly of geometric shapes like circles and squares. There is also minimal ornamentation and the use of clean lines to create a sense of simplicity and functionality.
• Use of cantilevers (beams that extend past a building) to add balconies to buildings (as seen below)
  

Fallingwater. Image Courtesy of the Frank Lloyd Wright Foundation.

Fauvism (1905-1908)

Techniques/Processes

• Used vivid, contrasting colors (as seen in the work below with the greens and oranges)
• Images that would normally be three-dimensional seem flat and unrealistic
  

Goldfish. Image Courtesy of henrimatisse. 

Expressionism (1905-1930s)

Techniques/Processes

• Works are more abstract than they were in previous artistic movements
• Like Fauvist painters, Expressionists also used contrasting colors in their works for a jarring effect 😨
• Expressionist art depicted serious topics such as World War I and its effects (Self-Portrait as a Soldier), mental health issues (Self-Portrait as a Soldier), and assassinations (Memorial Sheet for Karl Liebknecht). Artists uses dark tones, such as shades of black, gray, and brown, to create a sense of tumoil, anxiety, and emotional tension; all of which are meant to match the mood of the art.
  

Self-Portrait as a Soldier. Image Courtesy of Wikipedia. 

Cubism (1907-1930s)

Techniques/Process

• There were three different phases: Analytical (used sharp lines and rough, pointed edges), Synthetic (no depth, geometric shapes, collage-like in appearance), and Curvilinear (round edges)
  

Les Demoiselles d'Avignon. Image Courtesy of Wikipedia. .

Constructivism (1914-1920s)

Techniques/Processes

• Instead of using traditional materials, Constructivists used pre-made media and put them together to create a brand new image called a photomontage (as seen below)
  

The Results of the First Five-Year Plan. Image Courtesy of Khan Academy. 

Dada (1915-1922)

Techniques/Processes

• Artists did not use typical media like canvas and oil paint and instead opted to use ready-mades, which are typical everyday objects with a purpose that is not related to art
• Dada artists often used satire and irony to comment on the absurdity of the world and to challenge traditional notions of art.
  

Fountain. Image Courtesy of AP Art History.

DeStijl (1917-1930s)

Techniques/Processes

• Extremely abstract and unlike previous artistic movements
• Lines may only be perpendicular (meeting one another at a 90 degree angle ➕) and can't intersect diagonally. This makes the work look more simplistic and clean.
• Only white, black, and the three primary colors (yellow, blue, and red) are allowed to be used in works.
  

Composition with Red, Blue, and Yellow. Image Courtesy of Wikipedia

The International Style (1920s-1930s)

Techniques/Processes

• Both the Villa Savoye and Seagram Building have simplistic, geometrical designs 🌆
• The use of ferroconcrete (concrete that is reinforced with steel). Glass was also used to create a sense of transparency and connection with the outside world.
• Similar to the Praire Style, clean lines create a sense of simplicity
• The use of modular design allow architects to create repeating patterns and designs
  

Villa Savoye. Image Courtesy of Wikipedia. 

The Harlem Renaissance (1920s-1930s)

Techniques/Processes

• Most paintings from this artistic movement have themes like race, civil rights, and segregation (as indicated by the yellow separator in the painting below). This is known as portraiture, which depicts the everyday lives of African-Americans.
  

The Migration of the Negro. Image Courtesy of Elam's Art/History. 

Mexican Muralists (1920s-1930s)

Techniques/Processes

• Mexican muralists made their works using fresco (wet paint applied on plaster 🎨).
• Vibrant colors were used to create a sense of movement and energy.
• Most works have social, political, or cultural messages and picture Mexican figures from throughout history to show all the factors that have led Mexico to be the place it is today (historicism).
  

Dream of a Sunday Afternoon in Alameda Central Park. Image Courtesy of diegorivera. 

Surrealism (1924-1930s)

Techniques/Processes

• The meaning of Surrealist works are not meant to be understood and should puzzle their viewers 🤔
• Surrealist art was influenced by advancements made in the field of psychology by psychoanalysts Sigmund Freud and Carl Jung. Therefore, symbolis was used to convey deeper meaning and tap into the subconscious,
  

The Two Fridas. Image Courtesy of Khan Academy. 

Abstract Expressionism/The New York School (1940s-1950s)

Techniques/Processes

• Abstract, but not minimalist like the works made by artists of the DeStijl movement
• Action paintings, a type of abstract work where artists spill paint onto the canvas, rather than paint it on the traditional way, become popular.
  

Woman I. Image Courtesy of the Museum of Modern Art. 

Pop Art (1955-1970s)

Techniques/Processes

• Artists used materials that were either common or had a well-known purpose (assemblage). For example, the image below uses parts from a tank, which were used during the Vietnam War. This technique was used to challenge traditional notions of art and to comment on the role of consumer culture in society.
• Bright colors were used to make the artwork eye-catching.
• The combination of different materials in a single work (also seen below) was used to create a sense of fragmentation and to comment on the disjointed nature of modern life.
  

Lipstick (Ascending) on Caterpillar Tracks. Image Courtesy of Yale University Art Gallery. 

Color Field Painting (1960s)

Techniques/Processes

• Monochromatic (something using one color or multiple hues of the same color) and simple in comparison to works from previous artistic movements. There was interplay between the difference hues (colors were blended together)
• Nature-like appearance without obviously being something in nature 🌊
  

The Bay. Image Courtesy of Khan Academy. 

Happenings (1960s)

Techniques/Processes

• Works are public and encourage audience participation.
• The use of everyday items create a sense of familiarity
  

Narcissus Garden. Image Courtesy of AP Art History. 

Site Art (1970s-1990s)

Techniques/Processes

• These are earthworks, which are site-specific and are made from naturally-available materials from where the artwork is located. These are usually temporary, but can remain in situ (permanently where it was originally made)
  

Spiral Jetty. Image Courtesy of Dia Art Foundation.

We are almost done with Unit 4, the longest section in AP Art History! Give yourself a pat on the back for getting through this one. Be sure to go over what you just learned since there are a lot of different artistic movements and works in this unit. Happy studying, art historians 🎨!